BRING HISTORY ALIVE!

     BRING HISTORY ALIVE!—two sourcebooks for teaching United States and World history in Grades 5-12 classrooms offer teachers a treasury of ideas for bringing history alive in the schools. Each book contains more than twelve hundred classroom activities created and tested by veteran teachers from all over the country. The teaching examples are arranged by grade level and are keyed to the revised National History Standards. They are designed to carry students far beyond their textbooks on active-learning voyages into the past.

     Each book includes lively essays with insights into and approaches toward the various eras of World and United States history. For example, the Sourcebook for Teaching World History includes essays on “Central Themes in World History,” “Patterns and Comparisons in the Human Drama,” “The Case for ‘Big History,’” “From the Axial Age to the New Age: Religion as a Dynamic of World History,“ “Islam as a Special World-System,” and “Migrations of Africans to the Americas: The Impact on Africans, Africa, and the New World.” Among the essays in the Sourcebook for Teaching United States History are “Primary Sources in the Teaching of History,” “Writing Essays that Make Historical Arguments,” “Native American Women in History,” “A History of Technology: A Young and Vibrant Discipline,” “The Personal Dimension in Doing Oral History,” and “Refugees in History and in the History Classrooms.”

     Both volumes include the History Thinking Skills from the revised National History Standards. Both volumes have a section on annotated lists of general and era-specific resources that will help teachers enrich their classes with CD-ROMs, audio-visual material, primary sources, art and music, and various print materials.

     Each book is $17.95 plus postage and handling. The books can be ordered from the UCLA Bookzone, 308 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90024, and can be ordered by fax (310-825-0382) or by phone (310-206-0788).

Gary B. Nash

Director

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PRAISE FOR BRING HISTORY ALIVE!

“The two volumes of Bring History Alive! are wonderful references for teachers as they plan and implement their curriculum. They will help bridge the gap between the training received by teachers in their university days and the new research occurring in the various fields of history. The books provide samples of resource materials and lessons which will easily fit into any district’s approach to the teaching of history. Examples are there for all practitioners, from the traditional history teacher to those who wish to integrate the social sciences and history.”

—Dan Berman, Past-President, New York State Council for the Social Studies

“The new sourcebooks on U.S. and world history strike me as two big steps in the right direction—giant steps, I should think. The authors clearly care about history and about teaching history in a lively, effective way. And they write from first-hand teaching experience, which is so very important. Along with good balance, there’s compelling enthusiasm for the material and a bed-rock sense that it all greatly matters. It’s hard to imagine a teacher, however seasoned, or green, not benefiting from these books, and of course it will be the students who benefit most.”

—David McCullough, President of Society of American Historians

“Social studies teachers will welcome these sourcebooks as a rich resource to stimulate their teaching of history. In two coherent and balanced volumes, the sourcebooks provide thought-provoking essays, engaging classroom activities, and a compilation of resources that will assist teachers in revitalizing their approach to teaching U.S. and world history.”

—Martharose Laffey, Executive Director, National Council for the Social Studies

“These volumes are terrific. I learned a lot that is making me think about revising some of my own classroom practices. ‘Bring History Alive’ is an invigorating resource by and for teachers of history at all grade levels. It is splendid evidence of a renewed commitment to high achievement goals for all students. The essays about the state of scholarship and the innovative suggestions for classroom practice will sustain many of us in challenging students to aspire to learn more and think harder about the meanings of the past. I will be keeping it close at hand, and I am sure so will many colleagues across the nation, wherever we teach.”

—Linda Kerber, President, Organization of American Historians

“Teachers at all levels will find the ‘Bring History Alive’ sourcebooks to be invaluable aids. Both concrete and inspirational, the sourcebooks abound with workable ideas, resources tips, and clarifying essays.”

—Joyce Appleby, President, American Historical Association

“The National Center for History in the Schools deserves commendation for developing sourcebooks for the teaching of U.S. and world history. For all those who are trying to improve the teaching of history, these two collections should prove extremely useful.”

—Diane Ravitch, Historian of Education, NYU; Former Assistant Sec. of Education

“The sourcebooks are great resources for teachers. The sourcebooks focus on concrete ideas that teachers can use; they will help teachers spark creative insight, catch a teachable moment, and help them approach instruction in an exciting and meaningful way.”

—Gloria Sesso, President, Organization of History Teachers

“I wish I had these activities when I was teaching United States and World History. I could have been a better teacher. When I was a supervisor of social studies, these creative history strategies could have made history more challenging and interesting for students. Today, they represent an opportunity for teachers and students to build a strong base of knowledge, skill, and understanding of their nation and our world.”

—Fred Czarra, Consultant for International Education, Social Studies, and Interdisciplinary
Learning, Council of Chief State School Officers.

“The Bring History Alive! sourcebooks will be invaluable resources for the classroom, and the National Center for History in the Schools deserves gratitude and our heartiest commendation for bringing them to completion so quickly and expertly. All school districts in the nation should consult these books as an excellent means of strengthening their students’ education in history.”

—Theodore Rabb, Chairman, National Council for History Education

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Introduction


Part I: Approaching World History: Foundations of
Good Teaching

Rationale: Why Study History

Methods: Historical Thinking Skills

Explorations:

Clair W. Keller "Adding Inquiry to the 'Inquiry' Method"
David Christian "The Case for 'Big History'"
Ross E. Dunn "Central Themes in World History"
Jean Elliott Johnson "Patterns and Comparisons in the Human Drama
Peter N. Stearns "Periodizing World History Teaching: Identifying
the Big Changes"
Judith P. Zinsser "And Now for Something Completely Different:
Gendering the World History Survey"

Approaches to World History

Essay: Robert Lee Hotz, "Is the Concept of Race a Relic?"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: John Noble Wilford, "Collapse of Earliest Known Empire
Is Linked to Long, Harsh Drought"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Carlton H. Tucker, "From the Axial Age to the New Age:
Religion as a Dynamic of World History."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Jerry H. Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural
Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: John Obert Voll, "Islam as a Special World-System"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Alfred W. Crosby, "The Potato Connection"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Steven Muhlberger and Phil Paine, "Democracy's Place
in World History"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Marilynn Hitchens, "Russia in World History"

Sample Student Activities

Essay: The Economist, "The New English Empire"

Sample Student Activities

Introduction to Resources
General Resources
Era Specific Resources

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Era 3: Classical Traditions, Major Religions, and Giant Empires, 1000 BCE-300 CE

A. The causes and consequences of the unification of the Mediterranean basin under Roman rule.

Grades 5-6

• Retell the legends of the founding and early history of Rome such as the fable of Romulus and stories from the Aeneid. What do legends tell us about the beliefs and values of the ancient Romans? How do historians use myths and legends in describ-ing ancient civilizations?
  
  
• Draw a map locating the different ethnic groups and city-states of the Italian peninsula ca. 509 BCE. Who were the Etruscans and what influence did they have in early Roman history? Where were the Greek settlements located? What influence did they have on the Latins?
  
  
• Draw on evidence from David Macaulay's City to reconstruct a typical Roman city and explain the function of the public areas and buildings. Include diagrams of Roman residences and sketches of Roman aqueducts. Find examples of public buildings that use Roman architectural styles. Compare a Roman city to a modern U.S. city. How are these cities different and similar?
  
  
• Develop short biographies and sketches of famous Romans such as Cincinnatus, Scipio Africanus, Tiberius Gracchus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Nero, Marcus Aurelius, and Constantine for a class magazine entitled, "Roman Stars." What do the lives of these famous people tell about Roman values? What changes in values can be determined from the early Republic to the last years of the empire?
  
  
• Draw on stories such as Ellis Dillon's Rome under the Emperors and Chelsea Yarbro's Locadio's Apprentice to write diary entries describing what life was like for common people living in Rome and Pompeii.

Grades 7-8

• Create a series of maps showing the location of Etruscan, Roman, Phoenician, and Greek settlements in the eighth to sixth centuries BCE. What relationships of trade, conquest, rivalry, borrowing, influence did the Etruscans have with these peoples? What other areas did the Etruscans trade with by land and by sea?
  
  
• Develop an account reporting the conclusion of the Punic Wars. Include interviews with important participants, a summary of each war, and an explanation of the importance of these wars to Rome.
  
  
• Read selections from Plutarch's Lives of Famous Greeks and Romans on Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. What were the reforms championed by the Gracchi? How did these measures arouse hostility among the great landowners? How did the Senate deal with the Gracchi brothers?
  
  
• Construct a comparative study of the legal and social positions of women in different classes in Rome and the earlier Greek city-states. Prepare a debate between a Roman woman and one from Periclean Athens in which they discuss their positions in society.
  
  
• Develop a set of overlay transparencies or charts to describe the major phases of Roman expansion.
  
  
• Use information from sources such as Rosemary Sutcliff's Song for a Dark Queen to explain the Roman occupation of Britain. What was the nature of the conflict between the British and the Romans?
  
  
• Compare the military leadership of famous generals in ancient history such as Alexander of Macedon, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar.

Grades 9-12

• Compare innovations in ancient military technology such as the Macedonian phalanx, the Roman legion, the Persian cataphract, the Chinese crossbow, and the Greek trireme, and explain how they affected patterns of warfare and empire building.
  
  
• Compare Latin and Greek as universal languages of the Roman Empire. What political, cultural, and commercial purposes did these two languages have?
  
  
• Read selections from Polybius's treatment of the Roman Con-stitution. Identify those elements in his description that influenced the American political system.
  
  
• Examine the reign of Augustus and analyze its significance in the transition from Roman Republic to imperial government. Compare the Roman Republic with Imperial Rome. Assess the relative merits of the two types of government. How did one form of government turn into the other? What were the causes and consequences of the change?
  
  
• Explain the cultural influence of Hellenistic arts and architecture on the Romans. What major Roman artistic and technological achievements were influenced by Hellenistic traditions?
  
  
• Describe the "silk roads" connecting the Chinese and Roman empires in trade, and assess their impact on these societies and on peoples of Central Asia.

B. The emergence of Christianity in the context of the Roman Empire.

Grades 5-6

• Tell the story of the life of Jesus of Nazareth. What did he teach?
  
  
• Analyze several of Jesus's parables such as "the good shep-herd," "the good Samaritan," or "the prodigal son." What message do these parables illustrate?
  
  
• Prepare a short biography of Paul the Apostle and explain how he helped spread Christian teachings and practice.
  
  
• Analyze accounts from the New Testament that describe early Christian principles. What moral and spiritual values are expressed in these teachings?
  
  
• Compare in chart form Roman polytheistic values and beliefs to those of early Christianity. What do you think would have drawn people to Christianity?

Grades 7-8

• Examine the moral and spiritual teachings expressed in Jesus's "Sermon on the Mount" (Matt. 5-7). In what ways did his teachings both confirm the prohibitions of the Ten Commandments in the Hebrew Torah (e.g., you shall not kill, bear false witness, covet your neighbor's possessions) and expand upon them?
  
  
• Construct a map locating the centers of the early Christian church in the 1st century CE and the extent of the spread of Christianity by the end of the 4th century CE.
  
  
• Examine illustrations of early Christian religious art such as mosaics and paintings. What are the stories told in these art works? What values do they express? How do they compare to the religious art of other ancient civilizations?
  
  
• Compare the impact that each of the following emperors had on Christianity, and explain the reasons: Nero, Constantine, Julian, and Theodosius.
  
  
• Construct a list of those ideas and acts of Paul that most influenced the history of Christianity after him. On what bases might he be called the "second founder of Christianity"?

Grades 9-12

• Analyze the similarities and differences between Judaism and Christianity in their respective beliefs concerning the Deity.
  
  
• Read selections from the lives of early Christian martyrs, such as the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and construct an account explaining the role of the martyr in the spread and ultimate success of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
  
  
• Compile a listing of the fundamental teachings and practices of early Christianity. Which of these teachings is distinctive to Christianity and no other faiths? In which way has the development of Christianity been affected by Hebrew, Greek, Persian, or other influences?
  
  
• Map the areas in which there were recorded Christian communi-ties by the end of the 1st century CE, and the areas that were predominantly Christian by the end of the 4th century CE. Who were the people, and what were the events and circumstances that helped the spread of the Christian religion from its location of origin to other parts of Asia and to Africa and Europe during this period?
  
  
• Read Romans, Chapter 8, and write an essay discussing what you think are the most important Christian themes in Paul's message.
  
  
• Explain the impact of Christianity on the Roman Empire. Why did the Romans attempt to destroy Christianity? How did Christians respond to the persecutions? What was the significance of Constantine's conversion to Christianity and of Theodosius's antipagan legislation in the late 4th century?

C. How China became unified under the early imperial dynas-ties.

Grades 5-6

• Make drawings of the contents of Shi Huangdi's tomb and the building of the first Great Wall and label evidence that shows the achievements of the Qin period.
  
  
• Re-tell a Chinese folktale to explain what life was like for ordinary people in ancient China.
  
  
• Write a diary entry as a person working on the Great Wall under order of Emperor Qin, expressing your views of the value of the work you are doing and your feelings about working under harsh conditions. What reasons do people have for submitting to "greater authority"?
  
  
• Use excerpts from Marilee Heyer's The Weaving of a Dream to describe Chinese values and belief systems.
  
  
• Define the Mandate of Heaven and the idea of virtuous rule. How does this compare to how other cultures you've studied confer authority on their rulers?
  
  
• Use the following three passages expressing the "Golden Rule" and explain how Confucius, Aristotle, and Jesus sought to promote harmony in society. Confucius: "What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." Aristotle: "We should behave to our friends as we would wish our friends to behave to us." Jesus: "So whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to them." Create a poster illustrating one of the three passages, incorporating the artistic aesthetic of that religious or moral culture.

Grades 7-8

• Use overlays or a series of maps to trace the lands controlled by the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. Compare the extent of the Han empire to that of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire at the time of the emperor Trajan. How would you account for the success and limit of Han expansion?
  
  
• Diagram the social hierarchy in China including scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, merchants, soldiers, women, and slaves. Compare the stratification of Chinese society with that of other ancient societies. What gave people status in China? How was the composition of Chinese society similar to or dif-ferent from that of other ancient societies?
  
  
• Explain how the Zhou used the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven" to justify the overthrow of the Shang dynasty. How does this concept compare with ideas about the power and legitimacy of rulers in other ancient civilizations?
  
  
• Create a graphic organizer of Chinese achievements in science, technology, the arts, and practical methods of farming and irrigation. How did these achievements compare with those of the Greeks and Romans?
  
  
• Summarize the most important teachings of Confucius in a set of ten guidelines for human conduct. How do these Confucian guidelines compare with the Ten Commandments?
  
  
• Construct a manual for use by those wishing to take the civil service examinations during the time of the Han empire. Who could take the examination? How long would it take to prepare for it, how difficult would it be, what should be studied, what were the arrangements for taking the examination, could it be retaken in case of failure, and what advantages did passing it confer?
  
  
• Drawing on historical information, create an account of your travels as though written by a Han merchant using the "silk road" in his trading ventures. What goods do you trade in? How are those goods transported? What peoples do you encounter on the way? Where is the end-point of your trade route? What difficulties and dangers do you have to anticipate, and how do you try to minimize them? What new ideas and products have you brought home with you from your trading trips? How were they received?

Grades 9-12

• Stage a debate among a Confucianist, Daoist, and Legalist over which philosophy would end the era of warring states.
  
  
• Read selections of Qin laws on penal servitude and debate history's verdict on Shi Huangdi. Was he a cruel tyrant or a great builder?
  
  
• Prepare a museum display using illustrations from Chinese art up to the end of the Han dynasty. How does the art reflect the history and philosophy of China during this period?
  
  
• Research the legal and social position of women of different classes in the Confucian tradition. Compare the Confucian definition of women's roles with those of Ban Zhao (ca. 45-120 CE) as recorded in Lessons for Women.
  
  
• Participate in a debate on a modern legal issue of interest to stu-dents where you assume the role of a Confucianist, a Daoist or a Legalist. Which of these belief/value systems do you find to be closest to your own? Why?

D. Religious and cultural developments in India in the era of the Gangetic states and the Mauryan Empire.

Grades 5-6

• Retell in your own words an excerpt from the Jataka tales. What do the Jataka tales reveal about Buddhist teachings?
  
  
• Tell the story of the life of Siddhartha Gautama. Why is he called the Buddha? What are the "four truths" of Buddhism? What values did Buddha teach? How did these values compare to those of Brahmanism? To the teachings of Jesus?
  
  
• Assume the role of Ashoka being interviewed by a traveler. Tell you life story and explain the code of laws you have established to govern your empire. How would Ashoka advise people to treat one another? What laws might Ashoka recommend? How do you think Buddhism influenced Ashoka's ideas?
  
  
• Examine selections from Brian Thompson's The Story of Prince Rama and describe how Indian epic stories reflect social values.

Grades 7-8

• Analyze several animal stories from the Panchatantra. What advice do they offer people with little power? Which of these strategies did Chandragupta Maurya use? How does the advice compare with morals in Aesop's fables?
  
  
• Describe basic features of social relationships in India during this period. How was membership in social groups important? How did this affect such institutions as marriage and one's choice of occupation? How did the belief in dharma, one's fundamental duty in life, affect social behavior?
  
  
• Read selections from the rock and pillar edicts of Ashoka. Analyze what evidence they yield concerning Indian society, religion, and history in the Maurya period. Construct a chart listing the achievements of Ashoka and evaluate his accomplishments. How do these accomplishments compare to those of other ancient leaders such as Alexander of Macedon and the Han emperors of China?
  
  
• Map the spread and extent of Buddhism up to about 300 CE. Explain the role played by such factors as royal favor, missionary activity, monasticism's appeal, expansion of trade in its spread.
  
  
• Trace the expansion of Buddhism and Christianity on an outline map of Eurasia and Africa. What are similarities and differences in the successful expansion of these religions?
  
  
• Read the story of Shvetaketu from the Chandogya Upanishad. How do these teachings compare with the Buddhist teaching about nirvana. What does Shvetaketu's father teach his son about Brahman and moksha?

Grades 9-12

• Draw evidence from literature to compare gender relations in India, China, and Greece. Use literary works such as the Ramayana, the Chinese Book of Songs, and the plays of Sophocles. How accurately do they reflect the status of women in ancient India, China, and Greece?
  
  
• Debate the statement: "Women were better off as Buddhists than they were in Brahmanic society."
  
  
• Explain how Buddhist teachings challenged the Brahmanic social system, especially caste, dietary practices, language usage, and the role of women. Which of Buddha's reforms contributed to its appeal and promoted the spread of Buddhism in India and beyond?
  
  
• Interpret selections from Kautilya's Arthashastra as a source of knowledge of Indian political thought and culture in the Maurya period. According to Kantilya, what must a ruler do in order to be successful in foreign relations and domestic policy? How accurately does what he says reflect conditions in India in this time?
  
  
• Research how Ashoka's support for Buddhism affected the spread of that religion in India. Compare with the effects of the Roman emperors' tolerance for and support of Christianity on the spread of that faith in the empire. How important was imperial support? What other factors influenced the spread of each religion?
  
  
• Examine the religious ideas associated with the Upanishads. How did these later books of the Vedas reflect Brahmanic teachings? How do Brahmanic teachings compare with Buddhist teachings about such ideas as reincarnation, the self, salvation, and how life should be lived?

Era 5: Intensified Hemispheric Interactions 1000-1500 CE

A. The consequences of Black Death and recurring plague pandemic in the 14th century.

Grades 5-6

• Describe what might happen to the daily life of a Southwest Asian or European town suddenly afflicted with plague.
  
  
• Write a short story or script a play about families in Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia during the height of the Black Death. Include information on topics such as: Did people know the causes of the plague? How did they respond to the plague? Was the response different in Christian and Muslim areas? How did the plague change the lives of those who survived?

Grades 7-8

• Map the origin and spread of the 14-century plague on a physical relief map. Hypothesize about the connection of the spread of the disease to the flow of goods along the Silk Route. What areas were spared the ravages of the plague?
  
  
• Draw evidence from primary source documents and visual materials to infer how villagers in western Europe and Southwest Asia responded to the Black Death. Write an account describing how you would have reacted if you were a villager and a deadly mysterious disease was threatening your village. Record whether or not your reactions would have been the same as those shown in the sources, explaining why or why not.
  
  
• Drawing information from books such as Ann Turner's The Way Home, and Ann Cheetham's The Pit, discuss the impact of the plague on young people. What options were available to them? What evidence would the authors have had to draw on to construct their accounts?

Grades 9-12

• Read and discuss accounts of the effects of the Black Death by Boccaccio or other 14th century European writers. Read Ibn Battuta's accounts of its effects on Syria and Egypt. Compare these accounts. What aspects of the disease and its effects did contemporaries focus on?
  
  
• Examine primary sources and secondary sources of scapegoating during the Great Plague. How did the pogroms affect Jewish communities in the Holy Roman Empire? Why did Jews flee to Poland and Russia in the mid-14th century?
  
  
• Describe the medical, administrative, and psychological measures taken in attempts to cope with plague in the 14th century. What other measures might have been taken under 14th-century conditions had the transmission of plague through fleas and rats, as well as by direct human-to-human transmission, been known?
  
  
• Make a list of what you consider to be the likely social and cultural consequences of the high mortality, prolonged fear and social dislocation that accompanied recurrent pandemics in the 14th and 15th centuries. Check your hypotheses against historical evidence. What impact did the Black Death have on economic, political, and religious life?
  
  
• Assess the impact of climatic change on European agriculture and population in the early 14th century. What was the "little ice age"? What effects could long-term climate change of less than 3% increase or decrease in global temperature have on the United States in the 21st century?

B. Transformations in Europe following the economic and demographic crises of the 14th century.

Grades 5-6

• Look at examples of Greek and Roman and then of Renaissance art and architecture. How did the former influence the latter?
  
  
• Study peasant uprisings such as that of Wat Tyler in 1381 to understand what led the peasants to rebel. Plot on a map and create a timeline for the major rebellions in Europe between 1300 and 1500. Were these rebellions due to the same causes?
  
  
• Write short biographies of persons involved in the Hundred Years War such as Edward III and Henry V of England, Charles VII of France, and Joan of Arc. Focus on their part in the war.
  
  
• Drawing on an assortment of picture books, discuss and compare examples of Italian Renaissance art. What is appealing about Renaissance painting or sculpture? What differences of composition can be seen in comparing a Renaissance painting with one from an earlier period in European history?

• Use examples from European history to explain why a major decrease in population raised the price of labor following the Black Death. Analyze possible social and economic effects of both population decline and increase of wages. What effects do historians think the Black Death may have had on serfdom in Europe?
  
  
• Assume the roles of an English and a French chronicler and debate the causes of the Hundred Years War.
  
  
• Develop a role-play activity or write a skit about the conflict between King Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII. How do you think Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV or King John of England would have responded to the conflict if they were alive at that time? How would Pope Gregory VII or Innocent III have responded? What does the conflict between Philip and Boniface indicate about the power of the papacy in the early 14th century?
  
  
• Write short biographical sketches of prominent figures of the late Medieval and early Renaissance periods, such as Dante, Petrarach, Boccaccio, Giotto, Botticelli, Donatello, Dürer, Brunelleschi, and Isabella d'Este. Did these individuals share similar values and attitudes? How did writers and artists portray life in the early Renaissance? What is meant by Renaissance Humanism? Why did wealthy or powerful persons become patrons of the arts?

Grades 9-12

• Compare the power and prestige of the papacy at the time of the Babylonian captivity and Great Western Schism to the papacy of Innocent III, a century and a half earlier. How might the conflict between the popes at Avignon and Rome have stimulated reform movements within the Catholic Church? To what extent did the problems within the Catholic Church stimulate kings and princes to challenge papal authority? Did the Great Western Schism pave the way for the Protestant Reformation?
  
  
• Read the accounts of the trial of Joan of Arc from the official report of the proceeding. Why was Joan tried in a church court? What was the charge brought against her? What accounts for the Catholic Church's review of her trial a quarter of a century later? Why is Joan revered as a patron saint of France?
  
  
• Develop a list of the characteristics of 15th-century Italian humanism. What reasons can you give for its emergence in this time and place? Which segments of the population were most significantly influenced by Italian humanism?
  
  
• Research the European role of gunpowder in weaponry, compared to traditional weaponry (mounted knights with lances, longbow, etc.). What social and political effects did the use of gunpowder have? How did it strengthen royal power?
  
  
• Write a set of educational recommendations in accordance with humanist ideals. Who should be educated and what should they learn?

C. Major political developments in Asia in the aftermath of the collapse of Mongol rule and the plague pandemic.

Grades 5-6

• Write a biography of Osman. How did his achievements lay the foundations of the Ottoman empire?
  
  
• Using overlays, map the expansion of the Ottoman state during the first century and a half of its existence. How important do you think the bosphorus and the Dardannelles were as a barrier to military expansion?

Grades 7-8

• Research the empire of Timur the Lame (Tamerlane) and assess the impact of his conquests on Southwest Asia and India. What part was played in Timur's successes by mobility, opponents' weakness, and a strategy of terror? How would you compare and contrast Timur and Chinggis Khan as conquerors, destroyers, and empire builders?
  
  
• Compare Samarkand under Timur and his successors with Florence under the Medicis. How did rulers contribute to the flourishing cultural life in each? How important was governmental support of the arts and sciences?
  
  
• Write a series of letters from an Ottoman ghazi warrior to a European knight. Your letters should reflect the similarities and differences in terms of duties, experiences, dress, and manners.

Grades 9-12

• Produce a European newspaper "special edition" dated at the time of the collapse of the Mongol rule in China. Include interviews of several persons who speculate what caused the downfall. Review the threat the Mongols once posed to eastern and central Europe. Interview several merchants and traders for their reaction to the possible end of Pax Mongolia.
  
  
• Compare the conquests of Timur with those of Chinggis Khan. How did their treatment of resisting and submitting peoples contribute to their successes? What were the benefits and disadvantages of their rule for their Mongol followers and their subject peoples? To what extent was each influenced by values or ideas of the cultures with which he came in contact?
  
  
• Compare and contrast Timur's patronage of scholars, artists, and scientists at Samarkand with the patronage taking place in Italian city-states at the same time. To what extent was the "Republic of Letters" a widespread phenomenon in the civilized world during this period? What evidence is there for communication among scholars and artists across cultural and religious lines?
  
  
• As a panel of experts, present to the class an account of the rise of the Ottoman empire from its beginning in Anatolia under Osman to the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II. What accounts for the success of the Ottoman empire? Include maps and other visual aids in your presentation.

Era 9: The 20th Century Since 1945: Promises and Paradoxes

A. How population explosion and environmental change have altered conditions of life around the world.

Grades 5-6

• Use photographs and posters to examine changes that took place when cities proliferated after World War II. What was the impact of urbanization on family life and standards of living? How has industrialization contributed to changes in the environment?
  
  
• Make a scrapbook of newspaper and magazine articles about the ongoing activities of groups trying to save the environment. What can individuals do to help? Organize a class project of recycling.
  
  
• Research United Nations programs to promote health and medical care and to improve the standard of living in developing nations. How successful are these programs?

Grades 7-8

• Research one of the following: population growth, urbanization, warfare, or the global market economy. Assess the ways it has contributed to altering or degrading the environment. Create a large symbol representing the selected topic and record your findings.
  
  
• Select readings from poems or articles about the environment from various countries around the world. Create a class Reader's Theater of significant passages.
  
  
• Debate the issues associated with the protection of the Brazilian rain forest from the perspectives of an environmentalist, a landless peasant farmer, and a cattle rancher. Is this a national or international issue? What proposals might be offered to address the issues raised by different interest groups? In what areas of the world are there similar issues? What should be the role of industrialized nations in meeting these challenges?

Grades 9-12

• Trace population changes in selected countries, such as India, Egypt, Nigeria, Brazil, the United States, and Italy. What assumptions can you make about population changes in relation to scientific, medical, and technological breakthroughs? Test these assumptions with research and prepare a report with a bar graph.
  
  
• View the video "World Population" by Zero Population Growth. What is the frame of reference of the filmmaker? How does this film achieve a dramatic effect and stimulate discussion of population growth?
  
  
• Examine the issues raised by the 1994 Cairo Conference on World Population. How did these issues address patterns of population growth? What were the objections raised regarding proposals restricting population growth? How difficult is it to arrive at a consensus document on population growth?
  
  
• Prepare a graph illustrating China's population growth from the 1700s through 1990. Analyze the effects of China's "one-child" policy of the 1990s. Why did China's population growth rate increase dramatically? How has China's population growth affected economic development from the 1800s onward?
  
  
• Research United Nations efforts to promote programs to improve health and welfare, and assess the effectiveness of these programs. Which major U.N. programs promote scientific and technical assistance? Does the U.N. provide adequate programs to avert catastrophes? How expensive are these programs? Who bears the cost of implementation?

B. How increasing economic interdependence has transformed human society.

Grades 5-6

• Construct an illustrated chart depicting major scientific, technological, or medical breakthroughs of the postwar decades. What would your life be like without these advances?
  
  
• On a map show major patterns of world migration since World War II. Assume the role of one of these migrants and write a letter explaining your reasons for moving. What are the risks you are taking? What are your expectations?
  
  
• Make a map centering on the Pacific Ocean that identifies the established and newly industrialized countries of the Pacific Rim. What is the Pacific Rim economy?

Grades 7-8

• Construct a case study of two developing countries. Compare and contrast development in the two countries. What are some of the challenges to economic development? How can the countries address these challenges?
  
  
• Assume the role of one of the following migrant workers: a Southeast Asian domestic worker in the Persian Gulf; an American oil executive in Saudi Arabia; a Moroccan factory worker in France; an Egyptian professor in the United States; or a Turkish Muslim religious teacher in Germany. Write a letter home. What do you like and dislike about your new home? How difficult is it to adapt to a different society?
  
  
• Construct a timeline or line graph of world oil price changes since 1950. Assess the reasons for these changes, both in the oil-producing and oil-consuming countries.
  
  
• Explain the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC). What are the advantages of the EEC? What similar economic partnerships have been formed in other parts of the world? Would a United States of Europe be a good idea?

Grades 9-12

• Assume the role of a representative to a world forum called to discuss the disparities between industrialized and developing countries. Examine statistical information regarding resources, production, capital investment, labor, and trade. What accounts for the disparity? What measures should be taken by industrialized states to assist developing nations? What programs should developing nations undertake?
  
  
• Assess the relationships between United States domestic energy policy and foreign policy in oil-producing regions since 1970.
  
  
• Research the development of multi-national corporations and explain in what ways they have had an impact on the world economy. What are the benefits of multi-national corporations? Why are they moving production units into developing countries? How have multi-national corporations contributed to the migration of people?
  
  
• Write a report explaining why the countries of East Asia have experienced comparatively rapid economic development in the late 20th century. What factors may explain why the economies of some countries of Africa have not significantly advanced in the late 1980s and 1990s?
  
  
• Construct a map showing the migration of workers from North Africa and Turkey to Europe since the 1970s. Why have so many people from these regions sought work in Europe? What social problems have they encountered? How does this phenomenon compare with the migration of people from Mexico, Central America, or the Caribbean to the U.S.?

C. How liberal democracy, market economies, and human rights movements have reshaped political and social life.

Grades 5-6

• Interview a family member or friend who was a teenager or adult before World War II. How do they think women's lives are different today in regard to social equality and economic opportunity?
  
  
• Gather information from biographies and write character sketches of Nelson Mandella, F. W. de Klerk, and Bishop Desmond Tutu. How have these three men contributed to the ending of apartheid in South Africa?
  
  
• List the basic ideas contained in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. How are these rights similar to and different from the provisions of the U.S. Bill of Rights? What other rights do you think should be added to the U.N. declaration? Why?

Grades 7-8

• Create an illustrated timeline of the events leading up to the collapse of the Soviet Union. On a map of the Soviet Union draw and label the independent countries formed from its boundaries. Would changing any of the events on the timeline have altered the collapse of the USSR? How were the borders of newly established states decided?
  
  
• Research the U.N. Declaration on Human Rights of 1948. Why was this document written? Write an expository essay on the progress or lack of progress of human and civil rights around the world or in one country.
  
  
• Use newspaper articles to research and role-play an interview with the leader of a separatist movement in a country of your choice. What moral issues are involved? What means are used by the separatist to achieve his or her goals? Why does he or she believe the struggle is necessary? What will be the effect on the people in that country?
  
  
• Assemble a collection of documentary photographs or construct a collage to illustrate the system of apartheid in South Africa. Explain how the system was abolished. What external pressures were placed on the South African government to end apartheid?
  
  
• Explain how Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost changed the U.S.S.R. and Soviet relations with Eastern European nations. What impact did the United States military build-up have on Soviet willingness to negotiate with the West?

• Use political and demographic maps showing the distribution of ethnic and religious groups in an African country to analyze the prevalence of ethnic and border conflicts since independence. Identify countries where several ethnic groups have come under one national roof as a result of decolonization. What are the implications for state-building?
  
  
• Analyze the development of nationalist movements in Eastern Europe from the pre-World War I to the post-Cold War period. How does the map of Eastern Europe in 1920 compare with the maps in 1950 and 1995? Why was there a resurgence of nationalism and ethnic tension in the region in the 1990s?
  
  
• Analyze the writings of male and female members of religious groups of various religions. How do they differ in their views of women's roles?
  
  
• Compare and contrast the legal status and social roles of Muslim women in various countries. What changes have taken place for women of various classes in the past century?
• Evaluate the relationship between demands for democratic reform and the trend toward privatization and economic liberalization in developing countries and former communist states. Assess the influence of multinational corporations in supporting or challenging these trends.

D. Major sources of tension and conflict in the contemporary world and efforts that have been made to address them.

Grades 5-6

• Write a diary of a young person concerned about ethnic or religious dissension or conflict in his or her country. Choose a country such as Canada, Ireland, Bosnia, Iraq, or Ruanda.
  
  
• Examine photographs of student protest in Tiananmen Square in China in 1989. What were the reasons for the protest? Why did student protesters demonstrate with miniature versions of the Statue of Liberty?

Grades 7-8

• Develop criteria for defining a terrorist act. Analyze acts characterized as terrorism in news reports in terms of means, motivation, and victims. What factors in modern society facilitate politically motivated terrorism? What methods can nations use to protect their citizens from terrorist acts? Is international cooperation necessary to stop terrorism?
  
  
• Analyze the term "religious fundamentalism" and trace its origin. How does the modern connotation of the term differ from its historical use? How appropriate is the term to certain religious movements in the late 20th century?
  
  
• Research the opening of China and the impact of changes in the communist system in the post-Mao era. How did world events help give rise to a reform movement in 1989? What actions did Deng Xiaoping take to crush the movement? How did world leaders react to the events in Tiananmen Square?
  
  
• Compile a list of nations that have faced the breakdown of central authority in the last two decades of the 20th century. What are the pressing problems facing these nations? Why have their respective governments been unable to cope with these problems? What has been the reaction of the international community?

Grades 9-12

• Research the application of economic and arms embargoes sponsored by United Nations resolutions, including the cases of Iran, Iraq, the former Yugoslavia, and Haiti. Assess the enforcement and political consequences for sanctioned countries. Evaluate criteria for applying and lifting various types of embargoes and on the exclusion of humanitarian aid.
  
  
• Define the meaning of jihad in Islamic belief. What Islamic principles are relevant to military activity? How does jihad incorporate the concept of "warfare with oneself"?
  
  
• Debate the question: "Does the nation-state have a future in the 21st century?"
  
  
• Define the term "genocide" and analyze possible examples of genocide since World War II. Conduct a tribunal that judges whether or not the Pol Pot regime committed genocide in Cambodia.

E. Major worldwide scientific and technological trends of the second half of the 20th century.

Grades 5-6

• Chart the changes that have taken place in the 20th century in communication. How have these changes affected life? To what extent have they helped bring people from different parts of the world together?
  
  
• Research the development of the U.S. space program and explain how it has served the public. How important are communications and weather satellites? How has the space program affected medical research? How has the space program improved our knowledge of the universe?
  
  
• Conduct a hypothetical interview with Neil Armstrong, asking him about his experience landing on the moon and how he thinks the expeditions to the moon have changed the world.
  
  
• Assume the role of a 19th-century scientist who has traveled forward in time. How would you describe the social and cultural implications of recent medical successes such as antibiotics and vaccines? What challenges do you see for medical research in the 21st century?

Grades 7-8

• Trace the development of computer technology from World War II to the present. How has the widespread use of computers affected the daily life at home and at work? To what extent has computer technology facilitated scientific research in other fields?
  
  
• Research the "Green Revolution." What agricultural techniques contributed to the growth in agricultural productivity? What new varieties of crops appeared? What were the benefits of these changes? How have scientists and governmental officials responded to unintended consequences of the "Green Revolution"?
  
  
• Research important medical discoveries of the latter part of the 20th century and explain how these have enhanced the quality of life. Have all nations shared in advanced medical research?

Grades 9-12

• Respond to Life magazine publisher Henry Luce's 1941 declaration that the world had entered into "the American Century" where the United States was "the intellectual, scientific and artistic capital of the world." What evidence can be given to support Luce's declaration? Why have increasing numbers of foreign students sought advanced degrees from American universities since the end of World War II? IN what fields had American science dominated? What factors account for innovation in scientific research in the U.S.?
  
  
• Debate the issue: "Resolved: Nuclear power is the most efficient and environmentally feasible energy source for the 21st century." How have demands for energy increased in the last generation? How do the industrialized nations of the world compare with developing nations in energy consumption? How many nations in the world rely heavily on nuclear power as an energy source? How do the costs and risks of nuclear power compare with those posed by continuing use of fossil fuels?
  
  
• Analyze the role governments and international corporations play in scientific research. Should governments fund programs of scientific and medical research? Why or why not?
  
  
• Investigate how World War II stimulated scientific research and technical innovations that advanced human well-being and standard of living. What medical advances came out of World War II? What new consumer products?
  
  
• Write a letter to the editor of a magazine which featured an article entitled "We Can No Longer Identify Science with Progress." Express your view either supporting or opposing this assertion.

F. Worldwide cultural trends of the second half of the 20th century.

Grades 5-6

• List major challenges confronting contemporary society and explain the ways in which different religions have sought to help solve these problems.
  
  
• List 10 consumer items that you consider important today. Would people in other parts of the world select the same items? Why or why not?
  
  
• Construct a bulletin board display showing examples of contemporary art and architecture from around the world. In what way do styles reflect local culture? In what way do they show evidence of a "global culture"?
  
  
• Using the Internet, compile information and images on a cultural or artistic movement such as Surrealism, Pop Art, musical comedy, animated film, or early rock and roll. How have these movements affected society?

Grades 7-8

• Create a large bulletin board picture and word collage of examples of "global culture." Include examples of global communications, information technology, and mass marketing. How have these developments accelerated social change?
  
  
• Research the global influence of CNN in the past ten years. In how many countries of the world can CNN be viewed? What role did CNN play in the Gulf War?
  
  
• Analyze books or articles on contemporary political, economic, and social issues published by Muslim, Christian, and Jewish religious groups. Compare and contrast their solutions to modern dilemmas.
  
  
• Debate the proposition that the late 20th century is a time of religious ferment and experimentation around the world.
  
  
• Construct a chart listing differences in ways of life in an industrial nation and a predominantly agrarian nation. What consumer goods are valued in each society? How has modern communication affected demands for consumer goods in different parts of the world?

• Debate the advantages and disadvantages of increased participation in the world economy for a country eager to preserve its traditional cultural identity. Use evidence from specific countries to support your argument.
  
  
• Define "liberation theology" and explain the ideological issues surrounding the philosophy.
  
  
• Assess the rationale behind the Soviet development of great art museums such as The Hermitage, the growth of the state opera and ballet programs, and reverence for Russian church architecture and music. How did this relate to the Communist ideal of the workers' revolution and state?
  
  
• Investigate why New York City became the world's "art capital" after World War II. What art movements arose there, and why were they often controversial? Collect images of paintings by leading Abstract Expressionists, and analyze how these works might express 20th-century values. Which artists migrated to the U.S. from Europe?
  
  
• Write a research paper on public controversies that arose in the U.S. in the 1980s and 1990s over the teaching or museum presentation of American history. What were the major issues in these controversies? Why is the "collective memory" important to Americans? Compare "history wars" in the U.S. with controversies or radical changes that have occurred in history teaching in recent years in Britain, Russia, or South Africa.

Introduction


Part I: Approaching United States History:
Foundations of Good Teaching

Rationale: Why Study History

Methods: History Thinking Skills

Explorations:

Clair W. Keller "Adding Inquiry to the 'Inquiry' Method."
article on Historical Research to be determined
Gerald Danzer and Mark Newman, Primary Sources in the
Teaching of History
Ray W. Karras, "Writing Essays that Make Historical Arguments"
Kathryn Sexton "Creative Book Reviews"

Essay: Nancy Shoemaker. "Native-American Women
in History."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Edwin S. Gaustad. "American History, With Memory
and Without Religion: ". . . the whole truth . . .
so help me God."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Jack N. Rakove. "Inspired Expedient: How James
Madison balanced principle and politics in securing
the adoption of the Bill of Rights."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Susan Armitage. "Women and the New Western
History."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Eric Foner. "The Continuing Evolution of
Reconstruction History."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Leon Fink. "American Labor History." The New
American History,

Sample Student Activities

Essay: W. David Lewis. "A History of Technology: A Young
and Vibrant Discipline."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Alan Brinkley. "Comparative Biography as Political
History: Huey Long and Father Coughlin."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Roger D. Long. "The Personal Dimension in Doing
Oral History."

Sample Student Activities

Essay: Paula Gillett. "Refugees in History and in the
History Classroom.".

Sample Student Activities

Introduction to Resources
General Resources
Era Specific Resources

top

II. How political, religious, and social institutions emerged in the English colonies.

A. The roots of representative government and how political rights were defined.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Draw upon stories of the arrival of the Pilgrims at in 1620 and explain the importance of the Mayflower Compact which they signed before leaving the ship. How did the Mayflower Compact promote the self-government in colonial New England?

• Explore how different colonies defined the right to vote or hold office. Why were people required to own property in order to vote?

• Describe the structure of roles and relationships within the Puritan family. Contrast Puritan family organization with the way families are structured today.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Analyze how the Magna Carta, English common law, and the English Bill of Rights (1689) contributed to the concept of "the rights of Englishmen."

• Evaluate to what degree colonial society was democratic in practice. How were political rights affected by gender, property ownership, religion, and legal status? What were the religious requirements for voting? Why did they exist?

• Analyze what the following quotation from an 18th-century New Yorker tells us about changing values and the growth of prosperity in colonial America. "The only principle of life propagated among the young people is to get money, and men are only esteemed according to what they are worth, that is, the money they are possessed of."

• Assess whether Benjamin Franklin's thirteen virtues in his formula for moral perfection outlined in his Autobiography represented a change in values from the ideals of Puritan New England. Assess his proverbs relating to the acquisition of wealth, such as: "Sloth makes all things difficult but industry all easy;" "It is hard for an empty sack to stand upright;" "time lost is never found again."

• Research the causes of 17th- and 18th-century colonial rebellions and assess the extent to which the insurgents resembled the patriots of the American Revolution. How did the leadership of these revolutions differ from the leadership in the American Revolution of 1776?
  
  
• Explain how political, geographic, social, and economic tensions led to Bacon's Rebellion and the Paxton Boys Massacre. To what extent were these rebellions justifiable attempts of the people to change their government's policies? To what extent were they lawless attempts to overthrow legitimate governments?
  
  
• Contrast the way in which property requirements restricted enfranchisement in England where land was scarce and expensive with similar requirements in colonial America where land was abundant and cheap. What effect did broad suffrage in the colonies have on notions of citizenship?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Draw upon such documents as the Mayflower Compact (1620), the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), the Massachusetts Body of Laws and Liberty (1641), the New Jersey Laws, Concessions, and Agreements (1677), and the Pennsylvania Frame of Government (1701) to explain the growth of early representative government and institutions in the colonies. How did geography and demography affect the different forms of government in colonial America? How did Pennsylvania's fluid social organization and Virginia's more rigid social hierarchy affect representative government in the two colonies?
  
  
• Analyze how institutions such as the Virginia House of Burgesses, the county court system, parish vestries, congregational organization of churches, the Massachusetts General Court, and the New England town meeting contributed to the growth of representative government in the colonies. How did such institutions promote the practice of "actual" as opposed to "virtual" representation? How democratic were such institutions in practice? Who could vote? Why did Jefferson call the New England town meeting "the wisest invention ever devised by the wit of man for the perfect exercise of self-government"?
  
  
• Develop a historical argument on the question whether the political settlements of the Glorious Revolution expanded "the rights of Englishmen" in the colonies, or led to the establishment of more centralized administration and imperial control.
  
  
• Using selections from primary sources such as John Winthrop's History of New England and Thomas Jefferson's "Letters to His Daughters," explain why women were not allowed to vote.
  
  
• Analyze how the Puritan beliefs in a covenanted community, support of communal ideals, faith in a personal relation with God, and a commitment to a life of labor bred an individualism in marked contrast to the acquisitive and individualistic values associated with the early Chesapeake colonies. To what extent did values in New England and Chesapeake colonies shape different societies?
  
  
• Analyze how Puritan leaders in the 17th century might have appraised the spirit of individualism professed in Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography and Poor Richard's Almanack .
  
  
• Develop a historical argument about whether such factors as the abundance of land, devotion to private property, and the growth of individualism and a competitive entrepreneurial spirit in 18th-century colonial America challenged European ideas of hierarchy and deference and contributed to the idea of participatory democracy.
  
  
• Analyze the factors behind Bacon's Rebellion to illustrate the conflicts between the underrepresented backwoodsmen and the privileged tidewater planters. Compare with the ethnic and class tensions behind Leisler's Rebellion in colonial New York and with later conflicts of the Carolina Regulators and Pennsylvania Paxton Boys, involving similar grievances and tensions. To what extent are the causes of Bacon's Rebellion, Leisler's Rebellion, and the revolts of the Carolina Regulators and Pennsylvania Paxton Boys similar? How are they different? Did Bacon's Rebellion lead to greater or less democracy in Virginia?
  
  
• Analyze how the conflict between the lower houses of colonial legislatures and the governors over such items as "control of the purse" contributed to the development of representative government. How did these conflicts affect their view of sovereignty and what was the significance of these developments?

B. Religious diversity in the colonies and how ideas about religious freedom evolved.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Explain why the Puritans came to North. What restrictions had been placed on Puritans in England?
  
  
• Create historical narratives, reenactments, or illustrations of children's roles in Puritan families drawing evidence from stories such as Elizabeth Speare's The Witch of Blackbird Pond, historical documents such as Eleazar Moody's The School of Good Manners (1772), pictures of hornbooks, replicas of The New England Primer (1727), family portraits, and other historical records. Compare these roles with their own lives in contemporary American society. What religious beliefs and values were families trying to instill in their children? Why were children taught to read at an early age and apprenticed at age 13 to friends or relatives? How did the skills and values taught to boys and girls reflect the gender roles they were expected to assume as adults?
  
  
• Examine opposition of dissenters to King James I as reflected in historical fiction such as The House of Stink Alley by F. N. Monjo.
  
  
• Describe the Bible commonwealth that the Puritans hoped to create. Explain the way in which individual goals were expected to be achieved within a mutually dependent community with shared values derived from their religious convictions.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Draw upon historical records in order to analyze and debate the confrontation between Thomas Leverett and Anne Hutchinson at her trial and the justice of her banishment from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Did Anne Hutchinson violate Puritan mores? Was she justified in pursuing her acts of civil disobedience? Were the colonial officials justified in banishing her for her beliefs and actions?
  
  
• Compare the treatment of dissenters in various colonies such as Puritan Massachusetts, Anglican Virginia, and Quaker Pennsylvania. To what extent did Puritans immigrate in search of religious freedom and then deny it to others? What did Roger Williams mean by separation of church and state? Do we have the same meaning of separation of church and state today?
  
  
• Draw evidence from biographies of Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, William Penn, and Cecilius Calvert on religious dissenters in the English colonies.
  
  
• Analyze how the tenets of faith expressed in John Winthrop's "A Model of Christian Charity" shaped the social, political, and religious life of the Puritan colony.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Explain the major tenets of Puritanism such as predestination, the covenant of works, the covenant of grace, and the doctrine of sanctification; and demonstrate how these beliefs shaped the Puritan colony.
  
  
• Draw upon such sources as John Winthrop's "A Model of Christian Charity," John Milton's Paradise Lost, Increase Mather's "Predestination and Human Exertion" Michael Wigglesworth's "The Day of Doom," and the poetry of Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor in order to analyze the major tenets of Puritanism.
  
  
• Contrast Puritan New England's stress on religious conformity with the legislated religious tolerance of William Penn's Pennsylvania. Explain the ways in which the New England example influenced eighteenth-century political thought on republicanism as well as the way in which Penn's innovation became preserved in the first amendment of the United States Constitution.
  
  
• Draw upon such records as the Trial of Anne Hutchinson at Newton and the banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts in order to develop a historical argument or debate on such questions as: How did Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson justify their actions? Why did Puritans object to their ideas and behavior? Did Hutchinson threaten gender and hierarchy roles? How was the treatment of the two dissenters different? Was their treatment justified?
  
  
• Analyze the reasons for the gradual decline of Puritanism in the later part of the 17th century, and explain its enduring legacy in the national character.
  
  
• Analyze how the presence of diverse religious groups in the English colonies such as Quakers, Catholics, Jews, Huguenots, and German Pietists contributed to the evolution of religious freedom. Why did Roger Williams support the separation of church and state? What were the reasons for passage of the Maryland Act of Toleration in 1649? Why did the Pennsylvania Frame of Government (1701) guarantee religious freedom?
  
  
• Explore the Great Awakening as the first American mass movement. Draw upon such sources as Jonathan Edwards's sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" and on historical accounts of the Great Awakening in order to create a historical argument agreeing or disagreeing with the statement: The Great Awakening was a major influence in changing traditional relationships between rulers and the ruled and in the development of American "republicanism" and the nation's "civil religion."

C. Social and cultural change in British America.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Compare family life in Puritan society with that of other colonial North American families drawing evidence from such books as Everyday Life in Colonial America, popular stories, and historical records. Use a role-play activity or skit to show differences and similarities of a Puritan household to that of a Pennsylvania Quaker farm family; a farmer's family living in the Virginia piedmont; a craftsman's family from Williamsburg or Philadelphia; a New York merchant's family; a slave's family on a southern plantation; a family in French Quebec or New Orleans; or a family in Spanish Santa Fe or St. Augustine.
  
  
• Explain how differences in family housing, work, and the roles of men, women, and children reflected differences in family status and wealth; geographic region and resources; prior conditions of indentured servitude or slavery; ethnic traditions; and, religious beliefs.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Analyze family portraits by such colonial artists as Charles Willson Peale, John Wollaston, Ralph Earl, and John Singleton Copley to determine what the pictures reveal about the relationships of parents and children, and how family and gender roles are reflected in the paintings.
  
  
• Examine the social order in Puritan New England and compare it with that of the middle and southern colonies. How did family relationships differ? What were the established patterns of behavior of men, women, and children in different regions of English colonial America?
  
  
• Explain the ways in which the Puritan family was a "little commonwealth" and the ways in which Puritan communities and political organization mirrored family structure.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Draw evidence from a variety of secondary sources to investigate different patterns of family life in colonial North America. Compare the different ideals of family life among such diverse groups as the New England Puritans, the Virginia aristocracy, the frontier farmers, the Quakers, the Iroquois, the French in Quebec, the Indians of the Southwest, and the Spanish in Santa Fe. How would you account for the similarities and the differences? To what extent are the families patriarchal? How were young children treated? Were boys treated differently from girls? What was it like to be a teenager in these different societies? What role did economic interests play in the development of family life and its relationship to the community? To what extent did family roles, values, and structure change during the colonial period?

• Draw upon primary documents, secondary sources, and literary selections to analyze how men's and women's roles and status differed in Colonial America. How, for example, did the following lines in Anne Bradstreet's poem, "The Prologue," illustrate the role of women in colonial Massachusetts?

I am obnoxious to each carping tongue
Who says my hand a needle better fits

Why were women much more likely than men to be accused of witchcraft during the 17th century?

• Compare the property rights of single and married women in the English Atlantic seaboard colonies and the Spanish borderlands in the colonial period. How did the community view single women and grant them property rights? Why did English common law deny married women [femme covert] property rights? How did property settlements on a first marriage differ from those settlements when a widow remarried?

II. The course and character of the Civil War and its effects on the American people

A. How the resources of the Union and Confederacy affected the course of the war.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Explain how the military leaders and resources of the Union and the Confederacy such as Robert E. Lee, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Ulysses S. Grant, and William Tecumseh Sherman affected the course and outcome of the Civil War.
  
  
• Compare population, armies, and resources of the Confederacy with those of the Union at the beginning of the war.
  
  
• Draw upon historical accounts, diaries, literature, and songs to describe attitudes toward the war by both Union and Confederate soldiers and civilians at different stages of the conflict between 1861 and 1865.
  
  
• Explain why the Civil War is called the "first modern war." Illustrate innovations such as: communication by telegraph, extended railroad lines, observation balloons, ironclad ships, submarines, repeating and breechloading arms. Did the new technology give the soldiers a better chance in battle? Did technological innovations make war more devastating?
  
  
• Explain the reasons why President Lincoln issued his wartime Emancipation Proclamation. Read accounts to determine how different people in the North and South responded to the Proclamation.
  
  
• Locate and label major areas of combat on a historical map. Explore first-hand account of a major battle using letters, diaries, photographs, and art reproductions. Plan a hypothetical "class trip" and map a selected battle or campaign. Explain how the physical geography of the area played a part in the battle.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Draw upon statistical information from charts and graphs, topographic maps, and other historical sources to construct arguments that compare the economic, technological, and human resources of the Union with those of the Confederacy.
  
  
• Draw upon Stephen Crane's Red Badge of Courage and Michael Shaara's The Killer Angels, paintings, photographs, art prints, biographies, and historical narratives in order to evaluate the importance of military technology and to appraise its effect on combatants.
  
  
• Construct a historical narrative explaining how major battles and military leaders, such as Robert E. Lee, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, James Longstreet, George McClellan, William Tecumseh Sherman, and Ulysses S. Grant contributed to the outcome of the war.
  
  
• Analyze the Emancipation Proclamation and assess its impact on the outcome of the Civil War. What were President Lincoln's reasons for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation? Did the Emancipation Proclamation affect the foreign recognition of the Confederacy? How did abolitionists respond to the Emancipation Proclamation? What was the Confederate reaction?
  
  
• Compile a list of innovations in military technology and explain the impact each had on humans, property, and the final outcome of the war. Describe how each side made use of new technology.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Draw on a variety of biographical and historical accounts in order to contrast the wartime leadership of Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln and prepare a sound historical narrative explaining the importance of presidential leadership in the outcome of the war. How did their leadership styles contrast? Did Davis's military experience make a difference in his leadership? How did Lincoln's sense of humor and pragmatism affect his leadership? Which of the two men best exemplified better presidential leadership?
  
  
• Analyze the reasons for the impact of the Emancipation Proclamation in transforming the goals of the Civil War. How did the Emancipation Proclamation transform the goals of the Civil War? How does A.E. Lamb's painting, The Emancipation Proclamation portray the theme of the proclamation?
  
  
• Explain the meaning of the Gettysburg Address and analyze its significance as one of the most effective political speeches in our nation's history. What did Lincoln say the Declaration of Independence meant? Did Lincoln change the meaning of the Declaration or explain its true vision? How did Lincoln relate the Constitution to the Declaration?
  
  
• Explain how the "hammering campaigns" of Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman affected the outcome of the war. Did the South's emphasis on the eastern theater doom the Confederacy? What was the impact of the Civil War on the trans-Mississippi West?
  
  
• Debate the statement: Military leadership and manpower were secondary to technology in winning the Civil War.
  
  
• Draw upon historical sources in order to assess the varied Native American responses to the Civil War. How were Native Americans in the West affected by the Civil War? What were the internal conflicts among the "Five Civilized Tribes" regarding their support for the Union or Confederacy? What were the long-term consequences for them once the North emerged victorious?

B. The social experience of the war on the battlefield and homefront.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Explain how the Civil War changed the lives of American women, men, and children by comparing personal accounts, letters, and photographs. Use resources such as Virginia Hamilton's The People Could Fly, Patricia Lee Gauch's Thunder at Gettysburg, A Child's Account of the Battle of Gettysburg, and F. N. Monjo's The Vicksburg Veteran .
  
  
• Explain how the war affected the lives of women by drawing evidence from diaries, letters, and stories about the lives of Clara Barton, Harriet Tubman, and Rose Greenhow. What responsibilities did women take on at home during the war? What role did women play on the battlefield?
  
  
• Explain the motives of fighting men in the Civil War by examining documentary and literary accounts such as Milton Meltzer's The Black Americans: A History in Their Own Words and novels by Peter Burchard such as Jed, The Deserter, North by Night, and Bimby. What reasons might have been given by Confederate or Union soldiers for fighting in the Civil War? What were the motives of African American soldiers? Why were African American soldiers in special danger during the war?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Use historical fiction such as The Slopes of War by N.A. Perez, Thunder on the Tennessee by Clifton Wisler, Rifles for Watie by Harold Keith, and The 290 by Scott O'Dell to compare the experiences of Union and Confederate soldiers. How were the motives which compelled Union and Confederate soldiers similar or different? To what extent did these motives change as the war progressed?
  
  
• Examine the battlefield experiences of Union and Confederate soldiers using biographies, diaries, and visual depictions of battles such as the Kurz and Allison prints of the "Battle of Antietam" and the "Siege of Vicksburg."
  
  
• Appraise the contributions of African American soldiers during the war by drawing upon excerpts from the movie Glory and books such as Between Two Fires: Black Soldiers in the Civil War and Which Way Freedom by Joyce Hansen.
  
  
• Draw upon historical evidence to construct a narrative illustrating different perspectives on conscription during the Civil War and Union provisions for avoidance of service. What alternatives to the draft, if any, were opened to conscientious objectors such as Quakers or members of the Shaker communities? To what extent have policies toward conscientious objectors changed during other wars of the 19th and 20th centuries?
  
  
  
• Drawing upon a variety of sources including letters, biographies, and visuals, construct a skit or oral presentation which accurately evaluates the role and contribution of women on both sides of the conflict.
  
  
• Explain the effects of divided loyalties during the Civil War using historical fiction such as Hew Against the Grain by Betty Sue Cummings and Across Five Aprils by Irene Hunt.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Drawing on a variety of historical sources, develop a historical narrative analyzing the treatment of African American soldiers in the Union army and by the Confederacy during the Civil War. How was the concept of liberty viewed by African Americans? How did Confederate leaders determine to deal with African American soldiers? What happened to African American Union soldiers at Fort Pillow? What reasons account for the decision to differentiate between soldiers' pay for white troops and African American soldiers in the Union Army before June 1864?
  
  
• Analyze the causes and consequences of the New York City draft riots in July 1863 and the irony of African Americans fighting for liberty and democracy at Fort Wagner a few days after the outbreak of violence against blacks in New York City. How did city officials respond to the riots? How did the federal government respond? What do the riots reveal about support for the Union's war objectives in 1863?
  
  
• Interpret documentary evidence from a variety of sources reflecting differing perspectives to construct a historical argument or debate on such questions as: What circumstances would justify a restriction of civil liberties? How might President Lincoln's suspension of the writ of habeas corpus during the war be justified?
  
  
• Using diaries and letters, explain the roles of women on the home front and battle front during the Civil War. What new occupations were open to women during the war? To what extent did the war change gender roles and traditional attitudes toward women in the work force? How did the actions of Clara Barton, Belle Boyd, Rose Greenhow, and Harriet Tubman affect the war?
  
  
• Using diaries, paintings, photographs, statistics, and newspaper articles, explain the human costs of the war. How did photographs of death and destruction affect people of the North? Of the South? What do the paintings of Winslow Homer say about courage and leadership during the Civil War?

IV. The struggle for racial and gender equality and for the extension of civil liberties.

A. The "Second Reconstruction" and its advancement of civil rights.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Define terms such as "freedom ride," "civil disobedience," and "nonviolent resistance" and explain how they were important in the civil rights movement
  
  
• Present a dramatic reading of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech and construct a collage, mural, or bulletin board display using excerpts from his speech to explain pictures of events in the civil rights movement.
  
  
• Construct a skit, role playing activity, or readers theater to explain issues brought before the U.S. Supreme Court in the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954.
  
  
• Explain the lyrics of civil rights songs such as "We Shall Overcome," "Blowin' In the Wind," "If I Had a Hammer," and "O Freedom."
  
  
• Use children's trade books such as Freedom's Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell their Own Stories by Ellen Levine and The March on Washington by James Haskins to examine the goals and accomplishments of individuals and groups in the civil rights movement.
  
  
• Develop profiles of Asian Americans who have become congressional leaders in contemporary American society such as Daniel Inouye, Hiram Fong, Patsy Mink, and Spark Matsunaga.
  
  
• Drawing on biographies, stories, poetry, music, and pictorial resources, trace the achievements of Asian Americans, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans in the civil rights movement.
  
  
• Interview local people and investigate historical resources in the community to learn about issues important to cultural groups in the region.
  
  
• Construct biographic profiles of two major leaders in the struggle for equal rights and compare their goals, accomplishments, and failures. Who were the major leaders in the struggle for equal rights? How did these men and women advance their ideas ? What methods did they use to achieve their goals? Did their efforts make a difference in the way we think about equality and civil rights and the way we live now?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Construct a historical argument, debate, or narrative assessing the origins of the modern civil rights movement.
  
  
• Construct a time line illustrating important milestones in the civil rights movement between 1954 and 1965 and critically evaluate the effects of white resistance in the South. What developments prompted African Americans as well as other American citizens to challenge entrenched economic, political, and social power? What direction did these resistance measures take? To what extent did leaders in the civil rights movement agree on the means to reach their goals? How did the work of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X differ? What is the legacy of each in contemporary society, and how does each fare in the nation's historical memory?
  
  
• Draw evidence from a variety of sources including court cases, laws enacted by Congress, and executive orders to assess the effects of constitutional steps taken in the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of the government as part of the civil rights movement. What actions were taken to resist federal civil rights policy?
  
  
• Draw evidence from President Eisenhower's address to the nation to explain the president's reasons for dispatching federal troops to Little Rock in 1957.
  
  
• Draw upon a variety of historical evidence including literature, poetry, art, and music to investigate the efforts of various organizations and individuals to improve the status of minority groups in contemporary American society.
  
  
• Examine personal accounts of migrant farmworkers using children's tradebooks such as Voices from the Fields: Children of Migrant Farmworkers Tell Their Stories by S. Beth Atkin.
  
  
• Use stories such as Jimmy Yellow Hawk by Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, And Now Miguel by Joseph Krumhold, and Sea Glass and Child of the Owl by Laurence Yep to investigate personal narratives of young Native Americans, Hispanics, and Asians in searching for their own identity in American society.
  
  
• Construct a historical narrative assessing the means by which individuals and groups worked to improve civil and equal rights. Who were the leaders in the struggle for civil and equal rights? What methods were used to achieve their goals? How did the struggle differ among groups? To what extent was civil disobedience used to attain their goals?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• After reading the decisions in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and Brown v. Board of Education (1954), analyze the social and constitutional issues involved. Are separate schools inherently unequal? How does the historical context explain the reversal of Plessy v. Ferguson? Why is the Brown decision called "sociological jurisprudence"? Was Eisenhower justified in sending troops to Little Rock, Arkansas?
  
  
• Use "Letter From a Birmingham Jail," "I Have a Dream," and other writings of Martin Luther King, Jr., to analyze his leadership of the civil rights movement. How did Malcolm X feel about the March on Washington in 1963 and the philosophy of nonviolence? In what ways were King and Malcolm X similar and different in their goals and ideas? How did the Freedom Riders affect the civil rights movement? Why did the civil rights movement undergo a change from an emphasis on "Black Rights" to "Black Power" after passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965?
  
  
• Examine the role of women such as Ella Baker, Fannie Lou Hamer, Viola Liuzzo, Rosa Parks, Jo Ann Robinson, in the civil rights movement and explain their influence in shaping and affecting the struggle for civil rights. What was the significance of the change?
  
  
• Analyze the connection between legislative acts, Supreme Court decisions, and the civil rights movement. How did the Supreme Court's decision in Heart of Atlanta v. United States (1964) use the commerce clause of the Constitution to expand the scope of the Civil Rights Act? What was the impact of the decision? To what extent did the civil rights movement alter American federalism?
  
  
• Explain the issues that led to the development of civil rights movements among Asian Americans and investigate the efforts of organizations such as the Japanese-American Citizens League and Pan Asian Association in efforts to marshal community action and redress grievances. How did young Asian Americans influence older members of their communities to become more involved in the political process? How did political activism encourage the expansion of social service agencies, health clinics, and bilingual education programs in Asian communities?
  
  
• Interrogate historical data, contemporary poetry, literature and political biographies of César Chávez, "Corky" Gonzalez, and Delores Huerta to analyze the issues and goals of the Farm Labor movement, and La Raza Unida. How does César Chávez describe the life of the migrant workers? How is this connected to Hispanic American rights? How do poems like Inez Hernandez's "Para Teresa" describe the emotions of Mexican Americans? How does it compare to the writings of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X?
  
  
• Use newspaper and magazine reports of the seizure of Alcatraz (1969) and Second Wounded Knee (1973), and books such as Vine Deloria's Custer Died for Your Sins to explain the reasons for the Native American Civil Rights movement. How has "Red Power" been defined? Why did the American Indian Movement (AIM) seize Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay? How did the occupation end? What were the issues that led to Second Wounded Knee? Did AIM achieve its goals? Why or why not?

B. The women's movement for civil rights and equal opportunities.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Explain why the National Organization for Women was established. What are the issues women raised in the postwar period? Were these issues resolved or are they still present today?
  
  
• Draw evidence from documentary photographs, films, and newspaper and magazine advertisements to explain attitudes regarding women in the postwar period. Contrast the image of women today with that of the 1950s and 1960s.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Use a timeline to trace the evolution of the movement for women's rights in the 20th century and construct a historical narrative examining the accomplishments and setbacks in the development of the modern feminist movement. To what extent were the gains women made in the work force during World War II continue in the postwar period? What factors contributed to the development of the modern feminist movement? What factors led to the development of the National Organization for Women (NOW)? How did individuals such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Betty Friedan spur the development of the modern women's movement? To what extent has the modern feminist movement reshaped American society?
  
  
• Draw upon evidence from different perspectives to construct a historical argument, debate, or personal narrative explaining the conflicts originating from within and without the women's movement in the 1970s.
  
  
• Construct a sound argument, debate, or historical narrative presenting historical evidence on such questions as: Was the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) a necessary step in securing and maintaining women's rights? What were the arguments presented by Phyllis Schlafly and other opponents of ERA? What is the appropriate role of government in promoting equal employment opportunities for women? Are women's affirmative action programs necessary?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Use articles from Ms. magazine or selections from such books as Sisterhood is Powerful, edited by Robin Morgan, or The Rebirth of Feminism by Judith Hole and Ellen Levine and examine how feminism addressed women's problems and the solutions offered. Explain how Jacqueline Kennedy epitomized the transition from the fifties to the sixties woman. How were minority women affected by feminism?
  
  
• Using Supreme Court decisions, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1974, Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act of 1972, and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974, explain the impact of modern feminism. What does the slogan "the personal is political" mean? What factors contributed to the failure of three-fourths of the states to ratify the ERA? Was the ERA necessary? How are the civil rights movement and the women's rights movement connected?
  
  
• Draw upon evidence reflecting different perspectives to examine the controversies over the Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade. Examine the legal and moral issues raised by the "Right to Life" and "Free Choice" movements. How has the Supreme Court modified the Roe v. Wade decision through such court cases as Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989), Rust v. Sullivan (1990), and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)? What are the constitutional issues raised by Roe v. Wade?

C. The Warren Court's role in addressing civil liberties and equal rights.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 5-6

• Construct role-playing activity, skit, or classroom newspaper explaining the importance of the separation of church and state and freedom of religion in contemporary American society.
  
  
• Interview local people to investigate issues regarding religious freedom which are important to the community or region.
  
  
• Write a biographical sketch of Chief Justice Earl Warren and explain why some regard him as a great leader and others oppose the positions he took while serving on the Supreme Court.

Sample Student Activities for Grades 7-8

• Define "due process of law" and examine the Warren Court's stand on the extension of due process rights for the accused. What landmark Supreme Court cases extended due process rights? What were the controversies raised by these cases?
  
  
• Examine the Warren court's decisions in Engle v. Vitale. Why did the decision provoke widespread opposition?
  
  
• Investigate the major decisions of the Warren Court that aroused public opposition. What were President Eisenhower's views of Earl Warren and his decision to appoint him as Chief Justice? Why did Southern congressional leaders accuse the Court of an abuse of judicial power in 1956? What was the basis for the movement to impeach Chief Justice Earl Warren?

Sample Student Activities for Grades 9-12

• Use selections from transcripts of several major court cases, speeches, and political cartoons to analyze the extension of due process rights by the Warren court. What is the reasoning used to justify the decision in Gideon v. Wainwright? Miranda v. Arizona? Does the Sixth Amendment's "right to an attorney" mean that a citizen should be provided with one if he/she can't afford it? Is there such a thing as tainted evidence? Is the following statement a justifiable criticism of the Warren court's decisions: "The prisoner goes free because the constable has blundered"? Do you agree or disagree with the statement: "It is better that nine guilty men go free if one innocent man is saved"? Did the Miranda v. Arizona and Escobedo v. Illinois decisions undermine the ability of the police to apprehend criminals?
  
  
• Examine the Warren court's reasoning in the Reynolds v. Sims and Baker v. Carr cases, and explain their effect on representation. What is the "one man, one vote" principle?
  
  
• Examine the Warren court's interpretation of the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of religion. What were the landmark Supreme Court cases regarding freedom of religion? Why did the court rule that nondenominational prayers were a violation of the First Amendment? When, if ever, do you think that prayers should be allowed in public schools? Is a moment of silence a violation of the First Amendment? Why or why not? Were the decisions of the Warren court consistent with the concept of separation of church and state?
  
  
• Examine biographical sketches of members of the Warren Court. How did the background of justices differ? How effective has the Supreme Court been in protecting rights of the minority? To what extent did the majority of the court abandon judicial restraint and advocate judicial activism?
  
  
• Trace the historic roots of arguments over judicial activism and judicial restraint since the passage of the 14th Amendment. How did the Hughes Court of the 1930s use judicial power to invalidate acts of Congress? How has Justice Stone's famous "Footnote 4" (Carolene Products Dictum) been used to place stricter standards for the review of laws that are prejudicial against "discrete and insular minorities"? How did the judicial activism of the Warren Court compare to that of the Hughes Court?
  
  
• Use Article III of the Constitution and The Federalist Papers to examine the role and function of the Supreme Court. Debate the proposition: The Warren Court violated the Constitutional doctrine of separation of powers by "legislating from the bench."

Go to National Center for History in the Schools, Social Sciences Division or UCLA home pages.