LECTURE 9. OTTOMAN DECLINE AND TRADITIONALISTIC REFORM, 1566-1792

1. Why did the Ottoman Empire decline? Was there real decline? Why did the decline last
 so long? Role of substratum of Ottoman society in protecting subjects from worst
 aspects of decline. Traditionalistic Ottoman reform.
 
2.Manifestations of decline and disintegration.
 

a. Decline in quality of rulers caused by triumph of Devsirne during reign of Suleyman Kanuni, following appointment of Damad Ibrahim Pasa as Grand Vezir. Struggles for power of Devsirme-Harem parties who make appointments for party benefit, leading to misrule, corruption, oppression.

b. Social and economic changes. Overpopulation in Mediterranean area. Works of Fernand Braudel. Ottoman inability to meet needs of rapidly increasing population, due to Ottoman governmental system, power of gilds. Economic decline, inflation, debasement of currency. Racism and religious bigotryincrease of European power in marketplace due to Capitulations, Ottoman weakness, leads to increased Christian 'blood libel' attacks on Jews, Muslims and Jews pushed out of marketplace. Jews and Muslims driven to lowest ranks of Ottoman society.

c. Rise of autonomous provincial notables, bandits -derebeys, klephts, etc. who take over provincial administrative systems. Istanbul Ruling Class unable to collect provincial revenues. Unemployed urban and rural mobs riot, pull members of Ruling Class apart, raid government food depots.

3. Traditionalistic reform.
 

a. Attitude of Ruling Class members to reform. Benefit from abuses. Allow reforms only when Empire threatened.

b. European inability to take advantage of Ottoman weakness.

c. Nature of traditionalistic Ottoman reform. Based on premise that Ottoman ways superior to European ways-decline due not to European superiority but to Ottoman failure to practice traditional Ottoman institutions. Reform therefore involves restoration of traditional institutions that were successful in 15th century. Failure to see that Europe had advanced since that time.

4. Reform under Grand Vezir Mehmed Sokullu (1565-1579). Sokullu's devsirme party allied with Harem party led by Roxelana (Hurrem Sultan) and party of Jewish bankers led by Dona Gracia Mendes and Don Joseph Nasi. Manages to get Suleyman Kanuni to execute capable son Mustafa and bring to throne incompetent degenerate son Selim II 'the sot'-Sari Selim (Selim the Yellow), Sarhos Selim (Selim the Drunkard). Don Joseph gets Selim II and Sokullu to conquer Cyprus to provide home for Jews fleeing from persecution in Europe. Settlement of East Anatolian Turkomans instead. Leads to formation of new Holy League fleet led by Don Juan of Austria, defeats Ottoman, fleet at Battle of Lepanto (1571). Sokullu rebuilds fleet during winter, regains control of Mediterranean in 1572. Makes major administrative reforms, restores tax system, eliminates corrupt officials. Ottomans complete conquest of Yemen, Gulf fleet restores International trade routes from Far East through Middle East. Ottomans complete conquests of Caucasus, Georgia and Armenia. Successes lead to fall of Sokullu, resumption of decay.

5. Reform under Osman II (1618-1622), known as 'Osman the Young'-'Genc Osman.'  Tries to eliminate Devsirme element in Ottoman Ruling Class, restore Turkish dominance. Replaces Janissaries with Anatolian Turkish militia, replaces Christian women in court with Turkish women. Starts moving Ottoman capital to central Anatolia.  Leads to Janissary revolt, death of Osman while still young.

6. Murad IV (1623-1640). Controlled by Devsirme until Treaty of Sitva Torok (1606) shows Ruling Class that reforms needed to save empire from Europeans. Further threatened by new Iranian ruler Shah Abbas who revives Safavid Iran and conquers Iraq.  Anatolia falls under control of robber notables led by Celalis. Murad defeats Safavids, peace made by Treaty of Kasr-I Sirin (1639). Then turns to rapid reform. Sultan advised by Koci Bey, who studies entire Ottoman system and recommends systematic reforms.  Goes into streets in disguise to learn condition of subjects. Tries to enforce social morality, clothing regulations. Executes corrupt officials, replaces them with young, efficient, honest officials. Restores Ottoman strength, leading to his overthrow and replacement by Sultan Ibrahim. (1640).

7. Sultan Ibrahim (1640-1648)--the worst of all Ottoman sultans. Called 'Ibrahim the mad'-Deli Ibrahim--emptied treasury with extravagant purchases, palaces, parties, furs on walls of palaces. Cycle of corruption resumed. Led to overthrow for Mehmed IV.

8. Mehmed IV (1648-1687). Empire threatened by Venetian fleet, Celali movements in Anatolia, general corruption, disintegration of Empire. Brings in dynasty of strong Grand V ezirs who carry out major traditionalistic reforms--Koprulu family-Mehmed Kolrulu (1656-1661), Ahmed Koprulu (1656-1661), Fazil Ahmed Koprulu (1661-1676). Success of reforms leads Kara Mustafa Koprulu (1676-1683) to attempt second effort to conquer Vienna. Collapse of Ottoman army makes Europe fully aware for first time of extent of Ottoman weakness, leads to formation of Holy League and rise of the Eastern Question.

9. Holy League formed by Pope Innocent XI (1676-1689), including Venice, Austria, Poland and Russia who attack Ottoman Empire from different directions. Russians ravage Crimea (1687-1689), massacre thousands of Tatars, but finally driven out.  Poland conquers southern Ukraine (Podolia) to the Black Sea. Habsburgs push Ottoman army away from Vienna, conquer Hungary, massacre thousands of Muslims.  Remaining Turkish timar landowners flee to Bosnia, where they establish new estates. Experience at hands of Christians in Hungary leads them to become most fanatically anti-Christian element in Ottoman society. Habsburgs capture Belgrade (1688), move through Serbia into Bulgaria, massacrting thousands of Muslims with help of native Serbs and Bulgars.  Venice captures Dalmatia, attacks Ottomans in southern Greece, bombards Athens and partly destroy Parthenon.

10. Ottoman Ruling Class reacts with new reform effort. Mehmed IV deposed for Suleyman III (1687-1691). Mustafa Koprulu made Grand Vezir. Carries out traditionalistic reforms which restore administration and army. Launch counteroffensive. Help Tatars push Russians out of Crimea. Push Poles away from Black Sea back into Podolia. Drive Habsburgs out of Bulgaria and Serbia, accompanied by thousands of Serbian peasants who rightly feared they would be massacred by Turks in revenge for what they had done to Turks during Habsburg advance-settle in southern Hungary was 'Prechany Serbs.' Ottoman army recaptures Belgrade, crosses Danube, but effort to regain Hungary defeated by Habsburgs at Battle of Slankamen (19 August 1691). Success leads to fall of Mustafa Koprulu, restoration of Ottoman abuses. Habsburgs go on offensive under Prince Eugene of Savoy, rout Ottomans at Battle of Senta (1697). But Habsburgs diverted by new war with France, War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714), so make peace with Ottomans by Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699). Habsburgs get Hungary Croatia, Transylvania. Venice gets the Morea, Dalmatia, control of Eastern Mediterranean. Poland gets Podolia. Ottomans agree to allow Russia to establish port at Azov, start fleet on Black sea, beginning Russian push for control of Black Sea and Straits into the Mediterranean.

11. Peter the Great (1689-1725) modernizes Russia. Defeats Sweden in Great Northern War (1700-1721). Defeats Swedish king Charles XII (1697-1718) at Battle of Poltava (1709). Charles flees into exile to Istanbul. Intrigues in cooperation with French ambassador and Crimean Tatars to get Ottomans to attack Russia so he could regain his throne in Sweden and Tatars could regain control of north Black sea area. Bribes cause Ottomans to declare war on Russia. Peter the Great wanted to conquer Ottoman Empire, but only after he was finished conquering Baltic area, maintaining rule in Sweden. But when Ottoman army went through Bulgaria to invade Russia (1711), Peter formed what army he could muster. Surrounded and forced to surrender by Ottomans at Battle of the Pruth River (1711). Treaty of the Pruth allowed him to return home with his army intact in return only for giving up gains made at Karlowitz, surrender of port at Azov. Let off easily by Grand Vezir Baltaci Mehmed Pasa due to bribes, causing Grand Vezir to be executed afterwards.

12. Ottoman victory over Russia emboldened Istanbul war party to get sultan to attack Venice in order to regain previous losses. (1715). Ottomans regain Morea with help of Greek population, who had been subjected to religious oppression by Catholic Venetians. Habsburgs enter war (1716), nominally to help Venice. Eugene of Savoy routs Ottomans at Battle of Peterwaradin (1716), reoccupy Serbia, massacre thousands of Turks. March into Wallachia (Southern Rumania), but this angers Russians who want eastern Balkans for themselves. Russia gets Habsburgs to stop advances to preserve Balance of Power in Europe, to sign Peace Treaty with Ottomans at Passarowitz (21 July 1718), leaving Austria in control of Serbia, but failing to regain the Morea for Venice. Defeats lead Ottomans to new reform period called the Tulip Period (1716-1718), to be discussed later.

13. New Ottoman-Russia war (1736-1739) resulted from Russian effort to regain Azov, stir discord among Tatar princes to gain control of Crimea as first step to dominating Black Sea and Straits, gaining open access to Mediterranean. Russian army invades and devastates Crimea, Rumania, Bulgaria, massacring thousands, moving along Black Sea coast toward Istanbul. Austrians enter war (1737) to get their share, but then make peace with Ottomans (Treaty of Belgrade-1738), surrendering Serbia to Ottomans to leave them in position to resist Russian push toward Istanbul. But in return, Sultan forced to acknowledge Austrian Emperor as official representative for all Ottoman Christian subjects, a position also claimed by Russia. Led to European intervention in Ottoman internal affairs afterwards. Austrian pullout forced Russia also to accept peace at Treaty of Nissa (3 October 1739), by which Russia gave up the Crimea and Moldavia, but allowed to build port at Azov, again gaining foothold on Black Sea.

14. Europe busy with War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748), and Seven Years War (1756-1763), giving Ottomans time for new reforms, but peace caused Ruling Class to avoid reforms so that instead many of old abuses returned. New Ottoman-Russian war (1768-1774) followed due to ambitions of Russian Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796). Catherine arranged for her lover Stanislas Poniatowski to be elected as King of Poland in order to establish Russian control over Poland. Austria and France feared this would increase Russian power, upset Balance of Power in Europe, so they encouraged Polish nationalists to revolt against Russian domination., got Ottomans to attack Russia to divert it from Poland, though Ottoman army had decayed. Grand Vezir leads invading Ottoman army into Rumania (1769), but it broke up in disorder, without supplies or ammunition. Russians invaded Rumania, marched toward Istanbul. Since they still had no Black Sea fleet, they sent Baltic fleet through Atlantic, Straits of Gibraltar, into Eastern Mediterranean. Under Admiral Orlov, landed money and ammunition to local rebel groups in Albania, Greece, Egypt and Syria, stimulating further disintegration of Ottoman Power. Prussia leads European powers intervention to secure OttomanRussian peace because of fear that Russian conquest of Ottoman Empire would upset European Balance of Power, make Russia supreme on continent. Powers agree on Partition of Poland to satisfy everyone (1772), but Ottomans refuse to make peace unless Russians surrender all gains. Powers therefore allow Russians to attack Ottomans (1774) under general Alexander Suvorov. Russians occupy Bulgaria, rout remnants of Ottoman army, again march toward Istanbul, forcing Ottomans to surrender and accept European intervention for peace.

15. Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (16 July 1774). Ottomans forced to accept independence of Crimean Tatars, allowing them to be taken over by Russia in 1783. Russia allowed to station representatives throughout Ottoman Empire and to act as protector of Ottoman Christians, thus giving it legal right to intervene in Ottoman internal affairs to destabilize and weaken Empire. Ottoman Sultan recognized as Caliph of Muslims under foreign control.

16. Ottoman-Russian war (1787-1792). Caused by Catherine the Great's effort to carry out her 'Greek Scheme'. Her grandson Constantine would become Emperor of revived Byzantine Empire, with capital at Istanbul, under Russian domination Other European states to be compensated to retain Balance of Power-France to get Syria, England to get Egypt, Austria to get the western Balkans, Venice to get the Morea. France gets Ottomans to attack Russia due to Russian annexation of the Crimea in 1783. Russian army again moves through Bulgaria toward Istanbul. Austria enters war (1789) to get its share, conquers Serbia. Britain, Holland and Prussia form Triple Alliance (1788) against Russia and Austria. Austria makes separate peace with Ottomans at Sistova (1791), to prevent Russia from gaining too much. Forces Russia to make peace with Ottomans at Treaty of Jassy (9 January 1792). Russia gives Rumania back to Ottomans but forces Ottomans to accept Russian role in appointing native Rumanian princes to administer the country. Ottomans forced to accept Russian conquest of the Crimea, and to allow Russia to build fleet on the Black Sea for the first time, thus further extending Russian efforts to control the Straits and the passageways to the open seas.